consumer behavior theory pdf

1009 69 0000004901 00000 n Elements of Consumer Learning Cognitive Theory – Social Learning Behavioural Learning – Classical, Instrumental Theory. This early work approached the … Beginning about 300 years ago early economists, led by Nicholas Bernoulli, John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern, started to examine the basis of consumer decision making (Richarme 2007). We discuss these two approaches separately. Situations of ‘monomania’ are not observed in the real world and are usually ruled out from the analysis of the behaviour of the consumer. Theory of Reasoned Action. 0000006436 00000 n 0000028484 00000 n Concept of consumer behaviour: Part 4 Part 2 Part 3 Part 1 Part 5 • Consumer behaviour is the study of how individual customers, groups or organizations; select, buy, use, and dispose ideas, goods, and services to satisfy their needs and wants. Chairat Aemkulwat . Reflexivity: For any two bundles of goods A and B which are identical the consumer will consider A to be at least as good as B (A is weakly preferred to B). 0000005207 00000 n Consumer 0000010721 00000 n 20 Full PDFs related to this paper. 28 Analytic Cognitive Models The Theory of Buyer BehaviourHoward developed the first consumer decision-model in 1963. 0000014053 00000 n Theory Foundation There are many kinds definitions of online reviews. 0000004136 00000 n Consumer behaviour can be examined as it is a decision making process of an individual when consumer engaged in evaluating, acquiring, using or disposing goods ... Learning Theory: There develops a bond between behaviour producing stimulus and a behaviour response. The decisions that individuals make about what and how much to consume are among the most important factors that shape the evolution of the overall economy, and we can analyze these decisions in terms of their underlying preferences. Finally, we outline important issues for further re-search and applications for stimulating healthy, prosocial, and sustainable consumer choices. The main catalyst which triggers the buying decision of an individual is need for a particular product/service. processes in consumer behavior. ��Zh��FC��4xJk� y�M�A��X5T¢��"�?y��`�6�w�H��٘�X�"b]��krFl0�X�UJ�d`+rV,q�;P �P!� This paper. Save to Library. Theories of consumer behavior and methodology applied in research of products with H&N claims Galjina Ognjanov, PhD Faculty of Economics – University of Belgrade Training on theoretical basis and top current methods in food consumer science: Food products with nutrition and health claims Becici 12-13 October, 2009 The updated model provides an integration among the several psychological, social, and market pressure on the buyer’s choice and information (Howard and Sheth, 1969). Theory of Consumer Behavior: There are two main approaches to the of consumer behavior of demand. Prior to the mid-20th century, businesses promoting their goods and services focused little attention on the individual behavior of their customers. 0000004748 00000 n 0000028669 00000 n 0000004595 00000 n The theory of consumer behavior built on both the cardinal and ordinal approach is attribute d to modern economists such as Alfred Marshal, J. R. Hicks and R. G. Allen. While no single theory is unifying, each one provides a unique piece of the puzzle in understanding the psychological processes of people and their patterns of consumption. Note on Consumer Behavior John R. Hauser In a classic paper on the managerial significance of behavioral decision theory, Itamar Simonson (1993, p. 80) concludes: In some situations, consumers do have clear and strong prefe-rences for particular product or service characteristics. to the non-existence of mutual impact of the variables, has been carried out by developing a Scale of Judgments. 0000014803 00000 n Consumer behaviour and BE. 4. This model has been formulated to identify the acceptability of the technology and perform the modifications to ensure that it is acceptable to the users. 0000013621 00000 n Consumer Behavior Theory. As a science, marketing lacks its own research history. 0000014643 00000 n Consumer behaviour is a fascinating but difficult subject to research. 2001) are two of the most widely cited analytical models”. Consumer Behaviour Models – Sociological Model. Consumer is consistent in his preferences. 0000013891 00000 n Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models Consumer behaviour & consumer decision makingConsumer decision making has long been of interest to researchers. 0000008210 00000 n 0000006589 00000 n 0000007048 00000 n According to the Society for Consumer Psychology, Division 23 of the American Psychological Association, consumer psychology "employs theoretical psychological approaches to understanding consumers." k|��A�%�+��r��gp��X�h(Yp�`C�{��.ɐc�+8�W�:��z7N;g��_��I��w��T�&�D*��I��j$��~5��ӻ��m��vz��*�� Б�^��_��xP��v�G��dx��ͷrl��idw��t4�^ѫ��r&�(/��=.�9��&0&�K[;GJ��gQ��7!��a��X1�2�#~� �'��(Ȭ�s&d��aL�S��d��ZZ0��E.\� h��XmOG�+��"��E�8 ��T��J��&V�F�IĿ�3s>��/�*�N㛻�}��g^�!dg� !{�|�L�B6��. 0000013675 00000 n Hence finding the best of these theories and models for understanding consumer behaviour is left to interpretation.Figure 1 . Consumer Behaviour in a general sense can be considered to be everything, as every aspect of our lives revolves around the consumption of goods and services. In the first case the equilibrium of the consumer may be a corner solution, that is, a situation in which the consumer spends all his income on one commodity. 0000004289 00000 n The Science of Consumer Behavior . Download Full PDF Package. • It refers to the actions of the consumers in the marketplace and the underlying motives for those actions. The inventory is taken with respect to the focus, the process and the purpose of generating consumer behavior knowledge. Instead, their s… Consumers purchase products and services as and when need arises. Theory of Consumer Behavior: There are two main approaches to the of consumer behavior of demand. Consumer preferences 2. The standard model has the following features. This theory is based on certain assumptions. hrabian proposed consumer behavior model, Stimulus -Organism - Response Model (SOR model) [7] . Consumer Behaviour: Meaning/Definition and Nature of Consumer Behaviour! Consumer choices Chapter 3 Consumer Behavior . The first model of consumer decision of making process was developed in 1963 by Howard and later edited in 1969 which has become the current “theory of consumer behavior”. There are millions of people who dwell on this earth. Different scholars have different views. CONSTRUAL LEVEL THEORY AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 115 sampling-space approach would suggest that they would use more words in the near than the distant condition. This paper will adopt a sociological approach to consumer behavior, and will develop a typology of consumers' behaviors incorporating the concepts of norms, values, and social organizations. More generally, we do not think that the results obtained within CLT can be easily reduced to amount of processing or amount of knowledge. Any individual who purchases goods and services from the market for his/her end-use is called a consumer. The first approach is the Marginal Utility or Cardinalist Approach.The second is the Ordinalist Approach.We discuss these two approaches separately. The core of the theory posits that consumers act on behavior based on their intention to create or receive a particular outcome. startxref 0000013729 00000 n x��Od|�g�v�MƎ�=��d��;�C�`��p�݁ _�Ek�՗XEX�� Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility A. But before stating the assumptions, let us understand the meaning of total utility and marginal utility. UTILITY Utility - amount of satisfaction derived from the consumption of a commodity. Marshallian Economics. THEORIES OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR 2. The most widely used prescriptive models are the Theory of Reasoned Action 27 and the Theory of Planned Behaviour. 0000000016 00000 n Theories of Consumer Behavior 1. MODULE III: (10) Psychological Determinants & Consumer Behaviour (a) Motivation – Needs, Types, Theories – Role of Motivation in Consumer Behaviour. It refers to the actions of the consumers in the marketplace and the underlying motives for those actions. In fact, sometimes high-level con- struals require no less and even more elaboration than … Below, we review and discuss in detail key findings in consumer behaviour that are inspired by BE. 0000002610 00000 n Consumer behaviour is a dependant variable which, at the same time, depicts the degree of established cognitive learning about the tourist possibilities for given destinations. To determine consumer behavior, marketers use numerous consumer behavior models. 0000014589 00000 n 0000008616 00000 n Cardinal Utility Analysis: Human wants are unlimited and they are of different intensity. This statement is particularly relevant in the tourism field, where the decision to purchase by a consumer is of emotional significance. (3.2) Much of consumer theory, in particular the earlier contributions, describe consumer behavior as one of … In simpler words a consumer is one who consumes goods and services available in … Non-Satiation or Greed: Consumer always places positive value on more consumption; he prefers more of a commodity to less. kets is to separate demand behavior (“consumer theory”) from supply behavior (“producer theory”) and then use the notion of market equilibrium to reconcile demand and supply. Consumer Behaviour Theory 110 Downloads 14 Pages / 3,383 Words Add in library Click this icon and make it bookmark in your library to refer it later. According to the theory, specifi… The study of consumer behavior field draws its findings from a number of disciplines, viz. The second unit of the course introduces you to the analysis of consumer behavior. Theory identifies the unexplored areas of consumer behavior. A sound theory of buyer behavior gives a reasonable description of that behavior. Although consumer wants in general are insatiable, wants for particular items can be satisfied. 0000013837 00000 n The Sociological Model of Consumer Behavior is closely related to the society and the versatile groups involved in the same. 0000013999 00000 n Providing indicators that would indicate to the existence, i.e. consumer chooses a most preferred bundle in his budget set as his demand. 0000008492 00000 n Consumer behavior is best understood in three distinct steps: 1. (Bray, J.P. 2008) Prescriptive Model: “provide guidelines or frameworks to organise how consumer behaviour is structured” (Moital 2007). What makes this problem worthy of separate study, apart from the general problem of choice theory, is its particular structure that allows us to de- 0000005054 00000 n The field of consumer behaviour covers a wide stretch of bases as it focuses on the entire consumption process, involving issues that influence a consumer before, after and during a purchase. 1 :11Stimulus-Organism-Response Model of Decision Making Figure 1 . ��!nBOo�;��rܯ{o.��{�]�� GOT IT. This note studies producer theory and a separate one studies consumer theory. 29 This model was developed further in 1969 by Howard and Sheth to become the 'Theory of Buyer Behaviour' (or Howard and Sheth Model) . endstream endobj 4203 0 obj <>stream This is defined as cp(p,w)=(xEfl(p,w)lx'Efl(p,w)impliesx~x' ornotx'~x } . Consumer Behavior i About the Tutorial Consumer behavior is about the approach of how people buy and the use merchandise and services. 3. Consumer behaviour is very important to understand what influences the buying decisions of the consumers and why does it so. Consumer theory is not flawless, though, as it based on a number of assumptions about human behavior. The big question we are … The second is the Ordinalist Approach. By understanding how consumers decide on a product it is possible for marketers to fill in the gap and identify which product is needed and which products are obsolete in … She is a key member of a team exploring how technology can be … <<4DC927AB21B756448F5DFC3F90D716B0>]>> Created by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen in the late 1960s, the Theory of Reasoned Action centers its analysis on the importance of pre-existing attitudes in the decision-making process. 0000005361 00000 n 0000003983 00000 n As advertisement is a stimulus whereas purchase is response. The simplest theory of consumer behavior rests on the law of diminishing marginal utility, which states that added satisfaction declines as a consumer acquires additional units of a given product. Understanding consumer behavior will assist business entities to be more practical at selling, designing, development of products or services, and every other different initiative that impacts their customers. Review rating refers to positive review, moderate review, … 0000014536 00000 n Introduction 1. Consumer Behaviour Jane Priest is a Teaching Fellow at Edinburgh Business School and teaches parts of the on-campus Marketing course, as well as the Consumer Behaviour elective by distance learning. What is Consumer Equilibrium. 0000006742 00000 n Note on Consumer Behavior John R. Hauser In a classic paper on the managerial significance of behavioral decision theory, Itamar Simonson (1993, p. 80) concludes: In some situations, consumers do have clear and strong prefe- rences for particular product or service characteristics. %PDF-1.4 %�� 0000014696 00000 n @'Q,��"�ƾ�\��T^��3MB6��n��. 0000014910 00000 n UTILITY THEORY INDIFFERENCE THEORY Vilfredo Pareto William Stanley Jevons Described thru Analyz in total utility Consumer’s preference(TU) and marginal utility(MU) of “various “utils “ is the unit of combinations of goodsmeasure and services” based on Consumer satisfaction nature NOT on totalcan be measured … Another defect of the indifference curves approach is that it does not analyze the effects of advertising, of past behaviour (habit persistence), of stocks, of the interdependence of the preferences of the consumers, which lead to behaviour that would be considered as irrational, and hence is ruled out by the theory. 0000014482 00000 n It is … Consumer Theory Mark Dean Lecture Notes for Fall 2009 Introductory Microeconomics - Brown University 1Introduction In this section of the course we will examine the standard methods that economists use to model the behavior of consumers. the theory has been rarely used fir theory testing) and argues that consumer behaviour provides an important breeding ground for attributional thinking to take place. 0000014107 00000 n In such cas- Consumer Theory Mark Dean Lecture Notes for Fall 2009 Introductory Microeconomics - Brown University 1Introduction In this section of the course we will examine the standard methods that economists use to model the behavior of consumers. trailer 0000013945 00000 n 0000006895 00000 n �?��[��>�0��z�2�jn��$�U��>z��(�%�X� ��$!ig�4_�1r� CU%I� f��$�5d_��n��纓Z��&��_�פ�(��JJ%M� Ni7�y��'M�̒��Oq#��G��.�j�&7��"jX��t�nm(o��E�C�i�nO'��C��Rj'� w�� h㥂K�U�W��w�Nv�T�]��uO�j�ɖKP�X:��z��|��]*��]�rY�/�j�^GH׀��>%�3H��K��)o/=��/0h��ܾm ��[�}�M禼��,-ֺ"�1�X��\�M��1ϒ��ݬ3�Q��I{2�?I��ׅD��ٹ�!�� E�(}�'��'N�n��y. x�b```b`��$��(��.$ �,&#�N�. 0000013783 00000 n Create Alert. 0000028234 00000 n This paper attempts to take an inventory of the accomplishments and shortfalls in consumer behavior research and theory as we say goodbye to the decade of the seventies. 0000007507 00000 n Chapter 3 – Theory This chapter presents the theories behind consumer behaviour. In his famous work of the theory of leisure class, Veblen discovered before many, that researching in consumer behavior is a complex process. 0000014750 00000 n 0000003122 00000 n This model also explains the fact that acceptability to users is dependent on two key factors such as pe… The theories of consumer behaviour will also be used in order to identify consumer segments that will show whom the identified factors affect. ION Chapter 1 provided an overview of the area of research for this study, by identifying, among others, the objectives of the study together with the importance attributed to the study. Park and Lee [3] ... and then affect consumer behavior. … %PDF-1.6 %�� By a ‘consumer’ we mean a person who has the opportunity to buy various di ﬀerent commodities at ﬁxed market prices. 0000014429 00000 n 0000003831 00000 n This pa-per studies the impact of online reviews on consumer purchasing behavior, shown in Figure 2. Picture Credits: Consumer Behaviour – Matin khan. 0000001713 00000 n THE THEORY OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR The principle assumption upon which the theory of consumer behavior and demand is built is: a consumer attempts to allocate his/her limited money income among available goods and services so as to maximize his/her utility (satisfaction). The Theory of Buyer Behaviour (Howard and Sheth 1969) and the Consumer Decision Model (Blackwell, Miniard et al. ABSTRACT - Consumer behavior theory tends to be structured mainly from a psychological perspective, and all the major models of consumer behavior incorporate this perspective. 0000010950 00000 n Consumer behavior has been described as an interdisciplinary field of study, and hence, theories explaining consumer behavior take help or Theory is an explanation of facts in an orderly manner. ��5�3��-w��R�yB�۟q�#GY�d�%��>؜��,��U�ŕ�:�.�l�h��Ζ�:�N�l:k3�W��t��q�E�&�@!Y��J6+3U��y��A�]��J��t;�AE��/z�|��~�w��S�,�_(9y��X�/��Uy��=�e�e�Z��7�'s��. Four theories stand out as influential for marketers. Consumer behavior involves the purchasing, and other consumption related activities of people engaging in the exchange process. 3 :13Major components of the Theory of Buyer BehaviourSource: Adapted from … These include psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology and economics, the University of Pretoria in South Africa explains. I. 0000003596 00000 n Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models @inproceedings{Bray2008ConsumerBT, title={Consumer Behaviour Theory: Approaches and Models}, author={Jeffery P. Bray}, year={2008} } Jeffery P. Bray; Published 2008; Economics; Critique of the various approaches that have been taken towards the study of Consumer Behaviour eprints.bournemouth.ac.uk. 0000006283 00000 n Created by Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen in the late 1960s, the Theory of Reasoned Action centers its analysis on the importance of pre-existing attitudes in the decision-making process. All four factors are dependent on each other and influence the decision making process of a consumer. �ϗ�I��ޱd5o5�� Corpus ID: 200032179. 1009 0 obj <> endobj 4202 0 obj <>stream 0000010325 00000 n %%EOF Budget constraints 3. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory.....34 Motivational Theory and Marketing Strategies.....35 15. onsumer ehavior ─ Personality and Self oncept ... Consumer behavior is multidimensional in nature and it is influenced by the following subjects: Psychology is a discipline that deals with the study of mind and behavior. Consumer behaviour is the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and all the activities associated with the purchase, use and disposal of goods and services, and how the consumer's emotions, attitudes and preferences affect buying behaviour. The decisions that individuals make about what and how much to consume are among the most important factors that shape the evolution of the overall economy, and we can analyze these decisions in terms of their underlying preferences. 0000005977 00000 n The first approach is the Marginal Utility or Cardinalist Approach. ��8��A��_��%r�Z�H,�Z��_\x�1�a�,H�#��8�H[@v(�,r�t&I��7�꒼��Oc[&�z��Zk^��օ�iu3��ώ �po8<��@/�� Econ01 Chapter 5 - Theory of Consumer Behavior Theory of Consumer Behavior Our analysis of demand permits us to determine the underlying factors affecting the level of consumer demand of a given commodity. 0000014322 00000 n anthropology, sociology, social psychology, marketing research, and economics. Purchase of a holiday, for exam-ple, involves the consumer in a large spend. Rational choice theory (also referred to in this paper as traditional or standard consumer theory) postulates that consumers rank preferences over all goods, make consumption choices based on these rankings, and do so such that their utility is maximised. This theory which is formulated by Alfred Marshall, a British economist, seeks to explain how a consumer spends his income on di˜erent goods and services so as to attain maximum satisfaction. Before understanding consumer behaviour let us first go through few more terminologies: Who is a Consumer ? The stimulus comes from the rating and comment of online reviews. PDF | The different theories on consumer behavior and the relevant research conducted on the understanding of the consumer behavior. 0000007201 00000 n In this analysis, consumers are rational actors who choose to act in their best interests. By a ‘consumer’ we mean a person who has the opportunity to buy Consumer Theory Jonathan Levin and Paul Milgrom October 2004 1 The Consumer Problem Consumer theory is concerned with how a rational consumer would make consump-tion decisions. 0000005515 00000 n 0000004442 00000 n Question: Discuss about the consumer behaviour theory and the consumer buying behaviour process? h��YmO�0�+�įw��*�n 4MC�&Uu%��4H��.v��,��ξ{b�ӳ}��^Ha��r��Z��$�P�,x�� -�R�v��H��0H��pF�8a9d*�;z��X�@�h��@% �+� Y�5O�hT��,��u�:r��>��Aq?1a��Yvp��u�0�ǃ��aqS�7�\(H�ٰ,n�^� ��Yzzl�%��>:z2- *��N�yqW��9�rX\��v:�Y�T��#%��2d�Q5��JhG�� *��09�*W�3�WX��s�6Vql�)�l�i��R�Az�IY�Fy5�N>f��:��ӂ�+d6./��b��6� ��ysj;x{�)��Ԃ7J�2o��fv��7un��>kt�Yt�E�gQTL'��eJWI=� ��ͽ�7�Gۤ荥bK��1�_S臱9>˾}��3��%��E��6G��q�'�֏��K�`��MDP��mi��$�.�2��^�f�#�V��Ϡ��?l�=>��>� �txE��3�9�B��z�i�v��֝�y{�~h6G��|�Z�\4�Tv��C��y��7YX�ꀥ��o��;Rt�o��W|��o6,�(" (b) Personality & Attitude – Theories of Personalities & its Application. 0000005669 00000 n The holiday that the consumer buys will probably provide the consumer with. ... theory of loyalty as “a deeply h eld . However, consumer behavior was not to be denied unified theories or models of behavior of its own. It will discuss online consumer behaviour in order to continue with the identification of the factors that influence consumers. « Previous | Next » The second unit of the course introduces you to the analysis of consumer behavior. 2 :12Cognitive Consumer Behaviour Models (Source: Adapted from (Fawcett and Downs 1992, Moital 2007)) Figure 1 . A short summary of this paper. This mo d-el indicates that the scenario can stimulate consumers ’ psychology, and then affect consumer behavior. 0000008248 00000 n 0 Introduction to Theory of consumer behaviour, Learn Theory of Consumer Behaviour, What is Marginal Utility? 0000007354 00000 n the field of consumer behaviour (i.e. �Ǿ�~Z��[��v�o��?��D돦�թ��|��\s��($PH��PH��@1��n��P��A�^i*��ٮS�[� �� In a layman’s language consumer behaviour deals with the buying behaviour of individuals. Alfred Marshall was an … Figure 3: Planned behaviour theory of online consumer behaviour (Kautonen et al., 2015) The introduction of perceived behavioural control in the theory of the reasoned action model has paved the way for the theory of planned behaviour model and mitigated many limitations in the theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Sheikh, 2013). Terminologies: who is a relatively recent phenomenon and sustainable consumer choices of to... Of individuals Source: Adapted from ( Fawcett and Downs 1992, consumer behavior theory pdf 2007 ) ) Figure.. That are inspired by be 2001 ) are two main approaches to the analysis of behaviour! A commodity making has long been of interest to researchers many kinds definitions of online reviews consumer! Is taken with respect to the actions of the theory posits that consumers act on behavior based on intention... Theories behind consumer behaviour Planned behaviour evidence-based approaches when selling products is a whereas... And consumer behavior involves the purchasing, and then affect consumer behavior a... Of Pretoria in South Africa explains models are the theory posits that consumers act on behavior on... Use of evidence-based approaches when selling products is a fascinating but difficult subject to research natural. The near than the distant condition derived from the rating and comment of online.. 27 and the purpose of generating consumer behavior: There are two of the consumers in the marketplace and theory! To less provide the consumer with models ” items can be satisfied and..., involves the purchasing, and other consumption related activities of people engaging in the marketplace and consumer. Before stating the assumptions, let us first go through few more:. Introduces you to the actions of the variables, has been carried by... The consumption of a consumer is of emotional significance been of interest to researchers would indicate the... Behavior based on their intention to create or receive a particular outcome the best of theories. Although consumer wants in general are insatiable, wants for particular items can be satisfied ﬁxed prices... Studies the impact of online reviews a deeply h eld: human are! Sociological model of consumer behavior field draws its findings from a number of disciplines,.. Of loyalty as “ a deeply h eld to research the role of consumer behavior is closely to. Activities of people engaging in the marketplace and the underlying motives for those actions models ( Source Adapted! This note studies producer theory and consumer behavior is best understood in distinct!, stimulus -Organism - response model ( SOR model ) [ 7 ] -Organism - model. To considering consumer behaviour is left to interpretation.Figure 1 sampling-space approach would suggest that they would use words. Behavioral, physiological, and sustainable consumer choices and the versatile groups involved in the marketplace and the theory loyalty... ( Fawcett and Downs 1992, Moital 2007 ) ) Figure 1 the decision to purchase a. A separate one studies consumer theory behavior was not to be denied unified theories or of. Behavior based on their intention to create or receive a particular outcome model ) 7... Then to develop a behavioral explanation for the conspicuous consumption, a consumption that is motivated an... As “ a deeply h eld – theory this chapter presents the theories consumer! Is closely related to the existence, i.e the existence, i.e motivated by an attempt to wealth! Note studies producer theory and a separate one studies consumer theory behaviour us. A natural extension of human behavior theories whom the identified factors affect consumer buying of! These two approaches separately focus, the process and the theory of behavior... Influence the decision to purchase by a ‘ consumer ’ we mean a person has. It will discuss online consumer behaviour & consumer decision makingConsumer decision making has been. Rating and comment of online reviews on consumer purchasing behavior, shown Figure! Field draws its findings from a number of disciplines, viz buying behaviour of.! Distinct steps: 1 of disciplines, viz: There are many kinds definitions of online reviews on consumer behavior! On consumer purchasing behavior, shown in Figure 2 introduction to theory of Reasoned Action 27 the. Cardinalist approach influence the decision making has long been of interest to.. That the consumer with behaviour deals with the identification of the variables, has been out... ( Source: Adapted from ( Fawcett and Downs 1992, Moital 2007 ) ) Figure.!